This chapter has been published in the book CONFUCIUS AND SOCRATES Teaching Wisdom. For ordering information, please click here.
Now that we have looked at the life and character of Socrates, we can turn to an examination of his particular approach in educating. What techniques did he use to facilitate learning?
Socrates' attitude toward the divine carried over into his discussions as he often would pray for assistance in the argument or rely on his spiritual inspiration for guidance. In the Timaeus he suggested to Timaeus before he began his long speech that he should duly invoke the gods. Timaeus agreed that it is the intelligent way to begin any undertaking.1 In the Republic Socrates suggested to Glaucon that they pray for success in their search for justice.2 At the conclusion of the Phaedrus Socrates offered up a prayer to the gods of this enchanted place where he had been inspired. His prayer is characteristic of his values, but Phaedrus did agree to share it with his friend.
O beloved Pan (All) and the other gods of this place,
grant to me that I be made beautiful in my soul within,
and may the outward be in harmony with the inner person.
May I consider the wise person wealthy;
and may I have as much money
as a self-controlled person can bear and carry.3
Although Socrates saw himself as a catalyst or midwife, he felt it was actually the power of God which enabled the person he was talking with to improve. In the Alcibiades I In the Alcibiades I Socrates suggested to Alcibiades that he answer the questions put to him and "by God's will-if we are to put any trust in my divination-you and I shall both improve."4 As Socrates led Alcibiades on to the recognition of his need of education, he asked Alcibiades how he would proceed. Alcibiades responded that he depended on what Socrates wished, but Socrates corrected him by saying that it depended on God's will.5 In the Theages there is a lengthy description of several incidents where Socrates counseled his friends when he received an indication from his divine sign. Socrates twice warned another Timarchus not to leave a drinking party, but the third time Timarchus slipped out unnoticed and went to commit a crime for which he was later executed. He warned the commander, Sannio, not to set out on an expedition, and later the man was condemned to death after the battle of Arginusae.6 Then Socrates explained how the spiritual power assisted some in the educational process with him.
This spiritual power that attends me
also exerts itself to the full in my intercourse
with those who spend their time with me.
To many, indeed, it is adverse,
and it is not possible for these
to get any good by conversing with me,
and I am therefore unable to spend any time
in conversing with them.
And there are many with whom
it does not prohibit my intercourse,
yet the intercourse does them no good.
But those who are assisted
in their intercourse by that spiritual power
are the persons whom you have noticed;
for they make rapid progress there and then.
And of these, again, who make progress
some find the benefit both solid and enduring;
while there are many who,
for as long a time as they are with me,
make wonderful progress,
but when they are parted from me relapse,
and are no different from anybody else.7
Socrates cited Aristides as an example of one who improved
and then after leaving Socrates, gradually felt his new abilities
slipping away. Aristides related that although he did not learn
anything from Socrates, he made progress whenever he was with
Socrates-even if he was just in the same house, but more when
in the same room, even more when he looked at Socrates as he spoke,
and most of all when he sat beside him and touched him. In conclusion,
Socrates told Theages that he would make rapid progress with him
only if God willed it.8
When in the Phaedo Cebes praised
Socrates for how well he handled the argument about the soul being
a harmony, and expressed confidence for the next problem, Socrates
warned him not to be boastful and allow negativity in; the argument
was "in the hands of God."9
In the Cratylus, a tongue-in-cheek, half-humorous discussion
of the origin of words and names, Socrates felt inspired, but
he was not sure about the source of the inspiration.10 Later on
Socrates recognized an intuition that came to him concerning the
mutability and movement of all things.11 Further on again Socrates
marveled at the wisdom of what he was saying, but at this point
he felt the need to examine them more closely to avoid the worst
of all deceptions-self-deception.12 Thus Socrates did not rely
solely on inspiration, as we find him predominantly concerned
with reasoning. Yet it is fair to say that he recognized and utilized
divine sources of inspiration.
An important piece of evidence which supports that Socrates relied
on divine inspiration to help others is found in a fragment from
Aeschines, another Socratic whose writings were almost all lost.
As a student of Socrates, Aeschines can be placed on a comparable
level with Plato and Xenophon as to his opportunity to observe
Socrates directly. Socrates here drew his conclusions as to how
he had been able to help Alcibiades.
If I thought I knew some art
by which I could do good to people,
I should have charged myself with great folly:
but, as it is, I thought that these things came to me
as a divine gift for the sake of Alcibiades.
And there is nothing that calls for surprise in that....
Through the love which I felt for Alcibiades
I had had the same experience as the Bacchae.
For the Bacchae, when they are inspired,
draw up milk and honey from the wells
from which other people cannot even get water.
And so I too, though I have no science
with which I could help a person by instructing one in it,
nevertheless felt that by being with him
I could make him better through my love for him.13
Here we see also the love as the most important thing that
Socrates was able to contribute.
For Socrates love and friendship were the proper contexts for
the pursuit of wisdom and goodness. In Xenophon's Memoirs
of Socrates he explained to Antiphon that to take money
for his conversation would be like prostitution of wisdom instead
of beauty. The duty of a gentleman is to help one's friends become
as good as they can.14 In the Theaetetus Socrates was eager
to discuss, but only in an atmosphere of friendship; he was very
polite to Theodorus and did not try to force him into the argument
against his will.15
In the Phaedo Socrates demonstrated
how he was sensitive to the mood of the group and how he could
understand the problem and allay their fears. After Simmias and
Cebes had presented strong arguments against the immortality of
the soul, several of his listeners began to have serious doubts.
Phaedo described how Socrates handled the situation:
So his having an argument was perhaps not unexpected;
but I was especially amazed
first at how pleasantly and gently and respectfully
he accepted the argument of the youths,
then how he perceived how sharply
we were convinced by the arguments,
then how well he healed us
and as though he called us up from flight and defeat
and turned us forward toward it
he persuaded us also to consider together the argument.16
Phaedo went on to tell how Socrates stroked his beautiful hair
and playfully suggested that they both should cut off their hair
if they were not able to revive the wounded argument. Socrates
knew how to relieve the tension when necessary.
In the Laches Socrates
politely allowed the older gentlemen to speak first,17 and later
he advised Laches to instruct Nicias if he was wrong, rather than
abuse him.18 At the beginning of Xenophon's Symposium
Callias invited Socrates and his companions to a banquet. Socrates
admitted that he was only an amateur compared to the sophists
whom Callias had paid much money such as Protagoras, Gorgias,
Prodicus, and others. He was about to refuse the invitation, but
seeing that this would really upset Callias, he agreed to go with
him.19 Socrates was quite sensitive to the feelings of others
and took them into consideration.
Xenophon's description of this banquet offers some of the best
examples of Socrates' sense of humor. As they are playing the
game of saying what they each pride themselves in most, Charmides
claimed his was his poverty. Socrates commented, "It seldom
causes envy or a quarrel; and it is kept safe without necessity
of a guard, and grows stronger by neglect!"20 Then when asked
by Callias, Socrates declared he was most proud of being a procurer.
After they laughed, he claimed he could make much money in that
trade.21 Xenophon recalled that Socrates often used to talk in
a manner that was half joking and half serious.22
In the Euthyphro Socrates
joked with the pious man about his arguments being like the statues
of Daedalus, which were said to be so alive that they would run
away and could not be held in a fixed place.23 In the Euthydemus
when Dionysodorus and Ctesippus were getting into a bitter argument,
Socrates noticed it and began to joke with his friend Ctesippus
and gradually turned the discussion toward a desire for goodness.24
Socrates also had exceptional perseverance in carrying out an
investigation of any subject. After Euthyphro's attempts to define
holiness were found wanting, Socrates was ready to begin the inquiry
again so that he might learn what holiness really is from this
man who appeared to be so pious. However, Euthyphro begged off,
and hurried away.25In the Philebus
Protarchus asked Socrates three times to explain a point more
clearly so that he could understand it. Even then he was still
confused, but Socrates did not lose patience with him, as he went
on to give another example.26
Socrates also demonstrated things by his own personal example.
According to Diogenes Laertius, he once got up and left the theater
during Euripides' Auge when the following statement was
made about virtue: "'Tis best to let her roam at will."
He said it was ridiculous to make a fuss about a slave who could
not be found while virtue was allowed to be lost.27 When he had
invited some rich men over and Xanthippe was ashamed of the dinner,
he told her not to worry. If they were temperate, they would put
up with it; and if they were not, they need not care about them.
Socrates always demonstrated his own moderation and self-control
of appetites. He used to say that while other people lived to
eat, he himself ate to live.28
Xenophon also commented on Socrates' behavior and lessons at
banquets. Socrates used to tell the waiter of the dining-club
that the meat each person contributed should be put in the common
stock. This discouraged some from spending much on meat. When
one man ate meat without bread, Socrates mentioned this practice
as an apt description of greed. When the man began to take some
bread with his meat, Socrates suggested they watch to "see
whether he treats the bread as his meat or the meat as his bread."
He also cautioned that mixing the dishes destroyed the chef's
art and dulled the appreciation of less variety.29 In Xenophon's
Symposium Socrates recommended
wine in moderation to induce a more sportive mood. However, plants
when they are drenched with too much water become weak and fall
over; so too should people avoid the excesses of wine which cause
the bodies and minds to reel, making speech much less sensible.30
After describing Socrates' control of his own passions and appetites,
Xenophon summarized the example that Socrates set.
Such was his own character:
how then can he have led others into
impiety, crime, gluttony, lust, or laziness?
On the contrary, he cured these vices in many,
by putting into them a desire for goodness,
and by giving them confidence
that self-discipline would make them gentlemen.
To be sure he never professed to teach this;
but, by letting his own light shine,
he led his disciples to hope that
they through imitation of him
would attain to such excellence.
Furthermore, he himself never neglected the body,
and criticized such neglect in others.
Thus over-eating followed by over-exertion he disapproved.
But he approved of taking as much hard exercise
as is agreeable to the soul;
for the habit not only insured good health,
but did not hinder the care of the soul.31
Xenophon continued on and explained that Socrates kept himself
free by not accepting money for his conversation. He never promised
anything, but he was confident that as gentlemen they could benefit
from each others' friendship.32
This continual movement toward a better life was the energy which
motivated Socrates. One of his major techniques was to encourage
and exhort his listeners toward a virtuous life. In Xenophon's
Defense of Socrates
he said he had "served those who conversed with me by teaching
them, without reward, every good thing that was in my power."33
In Xenophon's Symposium
Socrates turned a discussion on perfume to the more lasting scent
of the beauty and goodness of the soul. When Lycon asked where
this ointment can be found, Socrates quoted Theognis:
Good people teach good; society with bad
Will but corrupt the good mind that you had.34
Later at the same banquet, Socrates praised and encouraged Callias in his spiritual rather than carnal love for Autolycus. Love of friendship and beautiful goodness (kalokagathia derives from "beauty and goodness" and is used to refer to noble conduct of a true gentleman) are related to the Heavenly Aphrodite as opposed to the Common Aphrodite. Hermogenes commented that by praising Callias in this way he was educating him in the ideal.35 Socrates used Callias' love to encourage him toward virtue.
The greatest blessing that befalls the one
who yearns to render his favorite a good friend
is the necessity of oneself
making virtue one's habitual practice.
For one cannot produce goodness in one's companion
while one's own conduct is evil,
nor can one exhibit shamelessness and incontinence
and at the same time render one's beloved
self-controlled and reverent.36
Finally Socrates urged Callias to learn and develop the abilities
of such men as Themistocles, Pericles, and Solon so that he might
become of great benefit to the city.37
In Plato's Charmides
Socrates and his friends were attempting to discover the meaning
of temperance or self-control. Socrates had an intuition that
it is of some benefit, and therefore he was concerned not only
to find out what it is, but what is its benefit as well.38 Even
after being condemned to death, in Plato's Defense of Socrates
we find Socrates giving a sermon to those who voted against him,
suggesting that they make themselves as good as possible.39 To
those who voted to acquit him, he made the request that they discipline
his children and make sure they care more for virtue than anything
else, as he, Socrates, had done for them.40
Socrates was particularly concerned with the proper education
of the young. In the Laches
Socrates was called upon to aid Lysimachus and Melesias in finding
the best teachers for their sons. Socrates requested the assistance
of Nicias and Laches, two famous generals, and he emphasized the
value of a teacher who is so good that he can make the souls of
young men good also.41 At the conclusion of the dialog Laches
and Nicias agree that neither of them was as competent as Socrates,
and Lysimachus asked Socrates to take on the task of improving
the youths. However, Socrates admitted that he did not know the
answers either, and therefore suggested that they all, even the
elderly gentlemen, do everything they could to pursue their own
education and that of the boys.42
Socrates was continually exhorting people not only to learn but
to act virtuously. At the end of the Gorgias
Socrates stressed the value and importance of justice, and he
exhorted Callicles and all people to search to know the truth
and to live as well as they can, practicing every virtue.43 In
the Euthydemus Socrates gave the new sophists an example
of how to exhort a youth to devote oneself to wisdom and virtue.
By argument Socrates showed that everyone desires good things
to be happy-not only the possession of good things, but the use
of them-and wisdom is what enables us to use all things well,
while ignorance leads to bad consequences. Therefore it is actually
wisdom which makes all things good, and it is wisdom we should
seek in order to be happy and be able to use things well.44
Additional exhortations are found in the Republic.
Socrates differentiated the divine and reasoning aspect of the
soul from the brutish appetites of the body, and then he encouraged
the listeners to use wisdom and justice to govern oneself and
harmonize the various levels of the person. The wise will use
intelligence and self-control to rule over the lower instincts
and attune the harmonies of the body for the sake of the concord
in the soul as a true musician does.45 At the conclusion of this
work Socrates encouraged everyone to "hold ever to the upward
way and pursue righteousness with wisdom always."46
Socrates also urged people to be truthful and to search for the
truth in discussion. In Plato's Symposium
when Alcibiades was about to give his speech in praise of Socrates,
he asked Socrates' permission to speak truthfully. Socrates not
only permitted him to be candid, but exhorted him to be truthful.47
In the Phaedo Socrates gave an
elaborate explanation of the danger in giving up the search for
truth because of much experience with bad arguments. He warned
them not to become haters of argument because of having been led
astray many times. This could deprive us of the truth and knowledge
of reality. Rather we should examine ourselves and make ourselves
ready to receive the truth. Although on the day of his death Socrates
was searching for the truth for selfish reasons, they should not
allow themselves to care more for the opinions of Socrates than
for the truth itself so that they all could avoid self-deception.48
Xenophon answered the criticisms that although Socrates was skilled
in exhorting men to virtue, he was an incompetent guide to it,
by recommending consideration of his searching cross-examinations
of those who thought they knew everything and of his daily talks
with his friends.49 Therefore let us now turn to an investigation
of his various methods of instruction.
Because Socrates was not a formal teacher with regular classes or an organized curriculum, his way of assisting people was spontaneous and specifically suited to the particular needs of the individual as he saw them. According to Xenophon, Socrates expended great effort to make people independent in doing the work for which they were most fit. To enable him to do this he sought
very carefully to discover
what each of his companions knew.
Whatever was appropriate for a gentleman to know
he taught most eagerly,
so far as his own knowledge extended;
if he was not entirely familiar with a subject,
he took them to those who knew.
He also taught them how far a well-educated person
should make oneself familiar with any given subject.50
In Xenophon's Defense of
Socrates when Meletus accused Socrates of persuading the
young men to obey him instead of their parents, Socrates admitted
that it was true as far as education is concerned.51 In the same
work Socrates mentioned that the reason Anytus became perturbed
and charged Socrates with these crimes was because Socrates advised
him not to limit his son's education to the tanning trade.52
Plato also gave examples of how Socrates used to recommend teachers
to inquiring learners.In the Laches
Socrates had a reputation for spending his time wherever there
was excellent study or the pursuit of education. Nicias said Socrates
introduced him to a superb music teacher, Damon, for his son.53
In the Protagoras a
young Hippocrates asked Socrates to introduce him to the most
eminent of the sophists. Socrates questioned Hippocrates to see
what it was he hoped to learn from Protagoras. Education is a
serious business because one is committing one's soul to another
person, hoping to be improved in the process. After Socrates had
questioned Hippocrates on these points, they agreed to go together
to see.54 When they met with Protagoras, Socrates asked him on
behalf of Hippocrates what he would learn and become better in
if he associated with the sophist.55
Socrates made it his business to study which young men in Athens
showed outstanding potential and what was their educational background.
In the Theaetetus he inquired of the geometrician Theodorus
whether there are any excellent prospects.56
Once Socrates had engaged in conversation with anyone, young or
old, he usually turned the discussion toward the person oneself
and how one led one's life. In the Laches
Nicias gave Lysimachus a description of what he expected Socrates
would do.
You seem to me not to be aware
that whoever comes nearest to Socrates
and enters into conversation with him
is liable to be drawn round and round by him
in the course of the argument-
no matter on what subject it began-not stopping
until one is led into giving an account of oneself,
of how one spends one's days,
and of the kind of life one has lived in the past;
and once one has been entangled in that,
Socrates will not let one go until
he has thoroughly and properly put all one's ways to the test.57
In Xenophon's Symposium
Socrates recommended that although the musical entertainment was
pleasurable, perhaps they ought to help and please each other.
They agreed, and so he suggested they share what each of them
considered to be his most valuable knowledge.58 In other words,
Socrates tended to direct the activity to some sort of self-knowledge
or self-examination.
Socrates often gave individuals advice in regard to certain problems
in their lives. Diogenes Laertius gave us several anecdotes. When
he observed that Aeschines was suffering from poverty, Socrates
suggested he borrow from himself by reducing his meals.59 When
his son Lamprocles became violently angry with his mother, Socrates
made him feel ashamed of himself. He advised Glaucon, Plato's
brother, who was eager to go into politics, not to, because of
his lack of experience; but he encouraged Charmides to take it
up because he had a talent for politics. He warned Euclides, who
was fascinated with eristic arguments, that it would enable him
to get along with sophists, but not with people.60
Xenophon gave many examples of how Socrates advised individuals
in specific ways. Often his advice was just common sense, which
sometimes escaped people somehow. Xenophon also showed us the
practical side of Socrates. When Socrates observed that a man
became angry because his greeting was not returned, he said, "Ridiculous!
You would not have been angry if you had met a man in worse health;
and yet you are annoyed because you have come across someone with
ruder manners!"61 To a man who grew tired of eating, he suggested,
"Stop eating; and you will then find life pleasanter, cheaper,
and healthier."62 Obviously, people do not need to be counseled
to eat. Another man complained that his water was too warm for
drinking and too cold for bathing, even though his servants did
not mind it. Socrates reminded him that Epidaurus water was warmer
to drink and Oropus water colder for washing, and that apparently
this man was harder to please than servants and invalids.63
When a man beat his footman for being gluttonous, foolish, rapacious,
and lazy, Socrates asked him to consider whether the slave or
the master should bear the responsibility and the punishment.64
When someone was dreading the long walk to Olympia, Socrates reminded
him that it is like taking a walk before lunch and another before
dinner. Rather than trying to hurry, it could be much more pleasant
by planning to leave a day early and then taking it easy.65 Another
man was exhausted after a long journey. Socrates inquired who
carried the baggage. It was the slave and not the man; he said
he never could have done it. Then Socrates wondered whether a
trained man should be less capable than his slave.66
Socrates advised an old friend, Eutherus, who had lost everything
in the war, to hire himself out in some business to a considerate
employer so that he would have something to live on in his old
age.67 Socrates' good friend Crito complained to him that unscrupulous
men were always taking him to court to get money from him, knowing
that he would pay rather than be bothered. Socrates suggested
he get a dog to keep the wolves away from his sheep. So they sought
out Archedemus, an honest man and good speaker, but poor. Crito
made him his friend, giving him a percentage of his corn, oil,
wine, wool, and other produce. Archedemus then discovered that
Crito's false accusers had committed many crimes. He charged them
in court and would not let them off until they dropped their actions
against Crito and compensated him. Soon Archedemus became the
protector for many of Crito's friends as well.68
Socrates was not afraid to criticize his friends or those in
power if he felt they needed it. At one time Critias was among
the circle of Socrates and had fallen in love with Euthydemus.
He could not keep his hands off of him, and Socrates felt he was
leading him astray. Therefore he said in the presence of Euthydemus
and others, "Critias seems to have the feelings of a pig:
he can no more keep away from Euthydemus than pigs can help rubbing
themselves against stones."69 Consequently Critias bore a
grudge against Socrates; and when he was in the government of
the Thirty, he and Charicles made it illegal "to teach the
art of words."70 However, this did not stop Socrates, who
seeing that the Thirty were putting to death many respectable
citizens, remarked,
It seems strange enough to me that a herdsman
who lets his cattle decrease and go to the bad
should not admit that he is a poor cowherd;
but stranger still that a statesman
when he causes the citizens to decrease and go to the bad,
should feel no shame nor think himself a poor statesman.71
Xenophon showed that this comment got to Critias' ears by recording
the conversation between Critias and Charicles and Socrates when
Socrates was called before them on the law forbidding conversation
with the young. Socrates asked if he must abstain from sound or
unsound reasoning. They replied that he must not speak at all
to anyone under the age of thirty. Socrates then asked if he might
inquire from a young person the price of an item or simple directions.
These were permissible, but he must keep off his favorite topics
of cobblers, builders, workers, and subjects such as justice and
holiness. Then Critias added, "And cowherds too: or else
you may find the cattle decrease."72
One day Socrates noticed that Aristarchus looked sad, and so
he offered to share the burden with him. Aristarchus explained
that since the revolution his household was filled with his female
relatives-fourteen in the house altogether. They were in danger
of starving because nobody was buying property. and he could not
get a loan. Socrates pointed out a man who had a large household
and was becoming rich. Aristarchus said it was because his family
was made up of free citizens with a liberal education, while the
other man had slaves with crafts. Socrates asked if this was not
disgraceful that the free should be worse off than slaves. Certainly
his relatives had learned to make bread, cloaks, shirts, and other
items. Socrates pointed out several families that were supported
in these ways. He showed how much happier they would be to be
doing useful work to support themselves rather than sitting in
gloomy idleness, suspicious of each other. Surely this work is
honorable. Aristarchus then was able to get a loan with this purpose
in mind, and soon the women in his house were busy all day and
smiling. Aristarchus returned to Socrates with the good news,
but he felt guilty that now he was the only one in the household
who ate the bread of idleness. So Socrates told him the story
of the dog who was given food by the master even though he provided
no wool or lambs or cheese as the sheep did. However, he was their
watchdog and keeper who protected them all.73
In his Anabasis Xenophon recorded how he asked for Socrates'
advice on what was probably one of the most important decisions
of his life-whether he should join the expedition with Cyrus.
Socrates suspected that his siding with Cyrus might make him an
enemy to Athenians since Cyrus had supported the Lacedaemonians
in their war against Athens. Therefore he advised Xenophon to
consult the Delphic oracle concerning the journey. However, Xenophon
only asked to what gods he should sacrifice and pray in order
to have a successful journey. When Xenophon reported back to Socrates,
he criticized the young man for deciding himself to go rather
than first asking the oracle whether or not he should go at all.
Under the circumstances Socrates accepted the result and advised,
"However, since you did put the question in that way, you
must do all that the god directed."74
According to Xenophon, Socrates gave Aristippus lengthy counseling
on his pleasurable way of life. After showing that rulers must
be trained in self-control more than those who are ruled, Socrates
asked Aristippus in which group he placed himself. Aristippus
admitted that he had no desire to be a ruler. Then Socrates asked
him if he preferred the life of the ruled nations of the world.
Aristippus had no taste for slavery, but chose a middle path through
liberty, which leads to happiness. However, Socrates was not certain
that he could avoid the world and the strong who oppress the weak.
Aristippus declared that he owed no allegiance to any state, but
he was a stranger in every land. Yet again, this was no proof
against injury because he did not have the protection or rank
of citizenship. Socrates asked him how masters treat servants
who do no work yet want luxuries. Aristippus answered that he
himself made their lives a burden until they obeyed. Nonetheless
he felt compulsory punishment was no better and less foolish than
voluntary suffering.
Socrates, however, pointed out the rewards of using one's will
to work hard and accomplish certain prizes, such as winning friends,
subduing enemies, making oneself capable in body and soul of managing
one's household well, of helping friends, and serving one's country.
These could bring joy, contentment, praise, and honor. He quoted
Hesiod about how evil is easily found, but it takes hard work
to become virtuous; though once the long and steep path is climbed,
on top the way becomes easy. Then Socrates narrated the long allegory
by Prodicus of Heracles meeting two women on the road-Virtue and
Vice. Vice offered immediate pleasures, but Virtue warned of their
shallowness and urged Heracles toward a life of heroism which
offered more lasting happiness. Finally Socrates advised, "Aristippus,
it would be worthwhile for you to think about these things and
try to consider well the life that is ahead of you."75 Aristippus
turned out to be the pre-Epicurean of the Socratics.
In his Symposium Xenophon
told us that Critobulus was given by his father into the care
of Socrates so that he might be improved.76 In the Oikonomikos
Socrates helped Critobulus to get an education in household management.
Socrates admitted that he himself did not have experience in this
field, but he could direct Critobulus to someone who was especially
skilled in this art. In fact Socrates declared that he had made
it a study of his to discover "who are the greatest masters
of various sciences to be found in Athens."77 In this way
he had directed many young men to teachers who had been successful
in their pursuits. Socrates suggested that Critobulus study exactly
how successful men conduct their business, just as someone might
study tragedies and comedies to learn to be a playwright. Critobulus
had eagerly enjoyed many plays and seen successful businessmen,
but he had not made a careful study to see precisely how they
handle things. Socrates said that the management of a household
depended a great deal on the wife, and the skill of the wife depended
on how the husband treated her. Socrates offered to take Critobulus
to see Aspasia who had more knowledge in this matter than Socrates.
Usually the income was a result of the man's efforts, but expenditures
were often controlled by the wife. If they both cooperated and
did well, the estate increased. Socrates added, "If you think
you want to know about other branches of knowledge, I suppose
I can show you people who handle themselves creditably in any
one of them."78
In his recollections of Socrates, Xenophon gave us a detailed
case study of how Socrates began an educational process with Euthydemus.
Xenophon presented it as a typical example of Socrates' "methods
of dealing with those who thought they had received the best education,
and prided themselves on wisdom."79 Euthydemus had collected
many books which contained the wisdom of the ages, and he was
confident in the abilities of speech and action. Socrates observed
that he did not enter the market-place because of his youth, but
he sat in the saddler's shop. Therefore Socrates went to this
shop with some of his companions. Someone asked whether Themistocles
became great by natural ability or by studying with a wise man.
To get Euthydemus thinking, Socrates said, "If in the minor
arts great achievement is impossible without competent masters,
surely it is absurd to imagine that the art of statesmanship,
the greatest of all accomplishments, comes to a person of its
own accord."80
On another occasion, Euthydemus was reluctant to join the circle
of Socrates or to show any admiration for his wisdom. Socrates
told the group that when Euthydemus was of an age he would not
hesitate to offer the Athenian Assembly advice on some policy.
Then Socrates satirized Euthydemus' attitude of not wanting to
be indebted to anyone for his knowledge by reciting the speech
Euthydemus would give. He explained how he had never learned anything
from anyone, but he would recommend whatever pops into his head.
Socrates made it even more humorous by adapting it to the office
of public physician. He had never studied medicine, but he would
like to be appointed physician so that he could try to learn by
experimenting on them. This gave them all a good laugh. Having
gotten his attention, Euthydemus still remained quiet; so Socrates
commented how strange it is that although musicians require teachers
and practice, those who would be good public speakers and politicians
assume they need no training or study even though their task is
more difficult.81
When Euthydemus became more tolerant of his conversation and attentive,
Socrates decided to go see him alone. Finding him in the saddler's
shop one day, Socrates asked him about his collection of books.
Socrates was pleased that he was pursuing wisdom, and asked him
what type of goodness he was looking for in these books. Was it
the skill of a physician, architect, mathematician, astronomer,
or rhapsodist? Euthydemus sought none of these. What he wanted
was the excellence which makes a politician, manager, ruler, and
benefactor of humanity. Socrates called this the royal art, and
asked if it required justice. Euthydemus agreed that it does,
and he claimed that he was a just man. Socrates proposed to test
his knowledge of justice by making two lists with the just things
in one column and the unjust in another column. They began by
placing lying, deceit, mischief, and selling into slavery under
the heading of injustice. Then Socrates asked him about the case
of a general who did each of these things to an unjust and hostile
state. Euthydemus admitted that then they would be just.
So Socrates proposed they revise their classification: that it
is just to do such things to enemies, but unjust to friends towards
whom one should be scrupulously honest. When Euthydemus agreed,
Socrates gave examples of a general encouraging his men with a
lie, a father deceiving his son by pretending the medicine he
refused to take was food, and the friend who stole the sword from
a man who was depressed and suicidal. Euthydemus again had to
admit that straightforwardness with friends is not always right.
Euthydemus was losing confidence in his answers, but he still
held that intentional deception is more unjust than unintentional
deception. By the analogy of knowing letters, Socrates showed
that intentional deception is more knowledgeable, and because
ignorance of what is good and just is slavish, Euthydemus was
wrong again. Through this process of refutation, Euthydemus was
brought to realize his own ignorance.
By the gods, Socrates, I did certainly believe that
I was a student of a philosophy that would provide me
with the best education in all things needed
by one who would be a gentleman.
But you can imagine my dismay when I realize
that in spite of all my trouble I am not even able
to answer a question about things I really ought to know,
and still have no other way
that will lead to my improvement.82
Now Socrates could bring up the importance of self-knowledge by mentioning the Delphic inscription: "Know yourself." Socrates asked Euthydemus if he paid attention to this and tried to consider who he is, but Euthydemus assumed he already knew or else he could hardly know anything else. Socrates suggested it might be helpful to know his own abilities and uses just as one who buys a horse wants to know whether it is docile or stubborn, strong or weak, fast or slow, and how useful it is as a horse. Euthydemus realized that because he did not know his own abilities, he must be ignorant of himself. Then Socrates explained the value of self-knowledge.
Is it not clear too that on account of self-knowledge
people come to much good,
and on account of self-deception to much harm?
For those who know themselves,
know what things are suitable for themselves
and discern their own abilities and limitations.
And by doing what they understand,
they get what they want and prosper;
by refraining from attempting what they do not understand,
they make no mistakes and avoid failure.
And consequently through their ability to test other people too,
and through their relationships with others
they get what is good and watch out for what is bad.
Those who do not know and are deceived
in their estimate of their own abilities,
are in the same condition with regard to
other people and other human affairs.
They know neither what they want, nor what they do,
nor those with whom they have relationships;
but mistaken in all these respects,
they miss the good and fall into the bad.
Furthermore, those who know what they do
win fame and honor by attaining their goals.
Their equals are glad to have dealings with them;
and those who miss their objectives look to them for counsel,
look to them for protection,
rest on them their hopes of better things,
and for all these reasons love them above all others.
But those who do not know what they do,
choose badly, fail in what they attempt and,
besides incurring direct loss and punishment,
they earn contempt through their failures,
make themselves ridiculous,
and live in dishonor and humiliation.83
The same is true of communities if they are to solve effectively
their problems and relate well to other communities.
Now Euthydemus recognized the importance of self-knowledge and
asked Socrates how he might begin the process of self-examination.
Socrates asked him if he knew the difference between what is good
and what is bad. Euthydemus assumed that he did, and stated to
Socrates that health is good and sickness is bad. However, Socrates
cited cases of where the healthy have had to fight in fatal wars
while the sick stayed home. Since the healthy had also had success
in adventures, we could not say that health necessarily leads
to good or bad fortune. Euthydemus suggested that wisdom is always
a good thing, but Socrates mentioned how Daedalus, Palamedes,
and others were enslaved, killed, and persecuted on account of
their wisdom. Happiness would be good except that its elements
of beauty, strength, wealth, glory, and other like qualities have
been sources of trouble for mankind. Since Euthydemus is planning
to go into democratic government, Socrates asked him if he knew
the people, rich and poor. Euthydemus said the poor did not have
enough to pay for what they want, while the rich had more than
enough. However, Socrates pointed out that some who had little
could still save while others no matter how much they had could
not live within their means. Finally Euthydemus realized his stupidity
and decided he had better not say anything more. Thus he went
away dejected and disgusted with himself.84
Xenophon mentioned that many people who were brought to this
state, never went back to Socrates, and they were regarded as
stupid by him. However, Euthydemus realized that he would never
amount to anything unless he spent as much time as possible with
Socrates. From then on he never left him and began to emulate
some of his practices. "Socrates, seeing how it was with
him, avoided worrying him, and began to expound very plainly and
clearly the knowledge that he thought most needful and the practices
that he held to be most excellent."85 This indicates that
the negative cross-examination, though perhaps the most interesting,
was not the limit of Socrates' educating, as he went on to give
positive teachings as well.
A very similar case study is found in the Alcibiades
I which has been attributed to Plato. In this dialog Socrates
announced his love for Alcibiades now that he had grown to manhood
and was ready to listen. Socrates correctly diagnosed Alcibiades'
political ambitions and offered to help educate the young man
so that he can attain his goals. He simply asked Alcibiades to
answer the questions put to him. Socrates began by inquiring whether
Alcibiades had the knowledge needed for him to give good advice
to the Athenians. Alcibiades claimed to know what is better and
what is just, but under Socrates' cross-examination it became
apparent that he did not. Since Alcibiades was the one answering
the questions, the admissions he was making were coming from himself
of his own free will. Socrates even offered him the choice of
asking or answering, but they agreed that by answering he was
being persuaded by himself instead of another.86
Soon Alcibiades too was in complete confusion, and Socrates explained
to him that it was not because he was simply ignorant, but because
he thought he knew when he did not. Again, this is the dangerous
self-deception which leads one to make mistakes. When Alcibiades
discovered that there were no wise politicians who had been able
to make others wise, he figured he might not need to be educated.
This immediately aroused Socrates' concern for his friend and
his desire to see him improve, so he motivated Alcibiades by appealing
to his tremendous ambition and comparing the ideal education of
the Persian prince to Alcibiades' predicament. Now Alcibiades
was ready to learn and asked Socrates for assistance. Socrates
recommended that they take counsel with each other so that they
might become as good as they could.87
To improve himself, a person must first know what it is one wishes
to improve. By asking him questions Socrates showed Alcibiades
that it was not his possessions which he used, nor even his body
which he, the self, also used, but the soul which is implied in
the Delphic statement: "Know yourself." The crafts of
physical objects and even the arts of the physician and trainer
which care for the body are not the science of self-knowledge.
The true lover of Alcibiades was not the one who loved the body,
but the one who loved his soul and sought to help him become virtuous,
and that was Socrates. How could one know oneself? Socrates suggested
the analogy of the eye looking at the seeing part of the eye (its
virtue). Therefore the soul should look at the virtuous and divine
part of itself, namely wisdom and justice. By acting wisely and
justly, he would be doing the will of God; or by looking in the
mirror of the divine he would know himself and his own good, would
act rightly and be happy. The conclusion was that Alcibiades should
seek not power but virtue in order to accomplish his goals.88
Socrates demonstrated his sharp perception of other people in
the Phaedrus when he
asked the young man about the speech he had heard from Lysias.
Phaedrus pretended that he was not able to remember or repeat
the speech, but Socrates saw right through him. "O Phaedrus!
If I don't know Phaedrus, I have forgotten myself."89 Socrates
went on to describe how Phaedrus must have asked for the speech
to be repeated several times, and then if he could, got hold of
a written copy, making every attempt to memorize it. Then meeting
another lover of discourse, he hoped to practice on him, but Socrates
would have none of that and suggested to Phaedrus that he pull
the speech out from under his cloak and read it aloud. Socrates
was not fooled by words, but he was interested in discussing what
was of particular interest to the other person.
In Plato's Symposium
they all agreed to give a speech on love. However, after Agathon's
speech and before his own, Socrates could hardly refrain from
questioning Agathon on some particular points about love (Eros)
being the love or desire of something one does not apparently
have. Therefore love cannot simply be the good and beautiful as
Agathon suggested. Agathon admitted that he could not refute Socrates,
but Socrates corrected this by reminding him that Socrates could
easily be refuted, but the truth could not be.90 Socrates did
not like to miss an opportunity to help an individual clarify
his ideas.
In the Theaetetus the young man by that name was described
by Theodorus as having similar facial features to Socrates and
being very quick to learn. When Socrates met Theaetetus, he immediately
began questioning him on these points. However, since Theodorus
was probably not an expert on faces, as he was not a painter,
he passed quickly over this to examine Theaetetus on his learning
ability and virtue.91
In the Meno there are
several examples of how Socrates gave special attention to individuals
and their interests and abilities. At the beginning Socrates declared
that he did not know what virtue is; in fact he had not yet found
anyone who did know. Meno suggested the sophist Gorgias whom Socrates
heard also; but Socrates could not recall his knowing what virtue
is. Since Meno admitted that he shared the views of Gorgias, Socrates
suggested that they not deal with Gorgias, as he was not there.92
This way Socrates was able to relate directly with Meno and his
awareness. Socrates further demonstrated his ability to work with
various kinds of individuals by helping a slave boy to learn how
to double the area of a square by making another square. This
showed Meno that they ought to inquire into what they did not
know. However, they still did not know the nature of virtue. Yet
Meno was now more interested in whether virtue could be taught
or not. Socrates would prefer to first discover what virtue is,
but he decided not to try to control Meno and yielded to Meno's
desire to pursue this other question.93 When Anytus arrived on
the scene, Socrates included him in the discussion by asking for
his advice in finding a teacher of virtue for Meno. The conversation
got around to the sophists, whom Anytus despises. Socrates asked
him what experience with them he had to support his strong opinions
against them. Anytus said he had had no dealings at all with them.
After Socrates had made this point clear, he returned to the question
of finding a teacher of virtue.94
Even during the time of his trial, Socrates could still put aside
his own personal difficulties in order to discuss a question of
concern to another person.In the Euthyphro
Socrates was on his way to court when he discovered that Euthyphro
was bringing a charge against his own father for unholy murder.
Socrates surmised that Euthyphro must be an expert on religion
and asked to become his student so that he could learn what holiness
is.95 Socrates also suggested that Euthyphro present his case
to him so that he could prepare for his speech before the judges.96
One might think Socrates had nothing else on his mind even though
he was about to be tried for a capital crime!
Even in defending himself in court, Socrates endeavored to instruct
Meletus by asking him how one should properly care for the youth
and who does it. Also, if he corrupted them willingly, what possible
motive could he have to injure? And if he corrupted them unwillingly,
then he was in need, not of punishment, but of instruction so
that he could consciously change his ways. Here Socrates demonstrated
that he believed that education was the solution to ethical problems.
On the religious question Socrates again concentrated on exactly
what Meletus' conceptions were. He discovered that Meletus believed
that he was an atheist. This idea he easily refuted by showing
that Meletus was formally charging him with believing in new spiritual
beings, an obvious contradiction of atheism.97
When Crito visited him in prison, Socrates seemed to be less
concerned about his own fate than his friend was. Crito had come
to help Socrates escape, but Socrates immediately focused on the
ethical question of whether it would be right for him to try to
escape. He could have said yes or no, but instead he debated the
issue of concern to Crito with him. The process of inquiry then
became instructional as many points were laid out which apparently
Crito had not considered.98
As in the case of Alcibiades, Socrates could help to motivate
another person to learn if he thought that the person could especially
benefit from education. Xenophon recalled how valuable the companionship
of Socrates was, even in his light moods as well as when he was
serious. Socrates often said that he was in love with someone;
but Xenophon was quick to point out that it was not with the outwardly
beautiful but with those whose souls excelled in goodness and
who were quick and eager to learn. He used different approaches
for different individuals. To those who felt they had all the
natural ability they needed without learning, he explained that
the greater the natural gifts are, the greater is the need and
value of education, just as the spirited thoroughbred horse requires
the most training and is worse off without it. To the wealthy
who thought money could replace education, he said,
Only a fool can think it possible to distinguish
between beneficial things and harmful things without learning:
only a fool can think that without distinguishing these
he will get all he wants by means of his wealth
and be able to do what is useful:
only a nitwit can think that
without the ability to do what is useful
he is doing well and has made good
or sufficient provision for his life:
only a nitwit can think that
by his wealth alone without knowledge
he will appear to be good at something,
or will enjoy a good reputation
without appearing to be good at anything in particular.99
In Plato's Lysis
Socrates showed that a free person is usually only allowed to
act freely in areas where one has knowledge and wisdom. Although
Lysis was a free man, his parents did not trust him to handle
many of the household affairs and possessions which they did trust
to their slaves. However, in the areas in which Lysis had been
educated, such as reading, writing, and music, he was the one
they called upon. Socrates explained that even the prince of Asia
would not be trusted by the great king to meddle with the soup
or his own injured eyes in preference to a knowledgeable cook
or physician. Thus knowledge and wisdom are the real license for
doing things, and are what enable a person to be useful and beneficial
to one's friends. Consequently Lysis realized that he needed to
learn.100
Socrates then got the young man to thinking by refuting all the
different understandings they could think of concerning what friendship
is.101 This process of getting people to doubt whether what they
assumed they knew is really true is a noted characteristic of
the Socratic method. In another dialog Meno declared that Socrates
was like the sting-ray which paralyzed his consciousness so that
he could no longer define a concept such as virtue about which
he had made many good speeches. Socrates agreed he paralyzed only
if he added that he himself was thrown into doubt through this
process. However, Socrates was still willing to go on inquiring
and examining to see if they could discover the nature of what
they were studying.102 The cross-examination, therefore, could
serve as a motivator for further study.
Sometimes Socrates playfully encouraged others to study with
him or search for greater wisdom by saying that he had a charm
which he applied to cure the soul by fair words. In the Charmides Socrates explained
that he was told by the Thracian king Zalmoxis not to cure the
body without first using the charm to cure the soul; for if the
soul is self-controlled and balanced, then the body can easily
be brought back to health. Thus, to cure Charmides' headache Socrates
must first charm his soul. After a lengthy cross-examination on
temperance, or self-control, Socrates admitted that they were
not understanding it fully and regretted he was unable to use
the charm. However, Charmides was stimulated by the discussion
and requested that Socrates charm him every day of his life.103
In the Phaedo Socrates made good
his claim mentioned in the Charmides
that the charm could even bring the awareness of immortality.
When Simmias and Cebes were fearful that the soul might be dissolved
by the wind, Socrates suggested that they sing charms to each
other every day until they charm away the fear. Cebes asked where
they could find such a good singer of charms now that Socrates
was leaving them. Socrates recommended that they search in various
countries regardless of the expense and that they also should
seek among themselves, for they might be more able to do this
than others.104 Even when Socrates was about to die, he was still
encouraging others to seek the good life.
Socrates is famous for his method of asking questions in especially
effective ways. Apparently he began to learn from the process
of inquiry at a very young age. Although it was written a long
time after its historical setting, Plato's Parmenides shows
us a young Socrates questioning Zeno to learn what he meant in
his writings. After listening to Zeno read his treatise through,
he asked him to repeat his first point. Socrates then inquired
of Zeno to clarify exactly the implication of what he had written-that
the many are really one. Socrates then brought up the idea of
abstractions and that things participate in them. He wondered
whether the abstract ideas or intellectual conceptions could be
united and separated as are visible objects. The respected Parmenides
complimented Socrates on his skill in argument.105 Parmenides
supported the notion of abstract ideas as being useful and necessary
for carrying on arguments. Parmenides recommended that Socrates
get further training in argument through testing a hypothesis
by looking at what the results would be if it was true, or if
it was not true. Socrates asked Parmenides to give him a demonstration
of how this works.106
For Socrates the starting point was the realization that he did
not know, and from there he could search for knowledge. In the
Cratylus Hermogenes expected Socrates to convince him of
the natural correctness of names, but Socrates reminded him, "You
forget what I said a while ago, that I did not know, but would
join you in looking for the truth."107 Realizing the difficulty
during their discussion of finding the origin of names, especially
foreign words, Socrates still felt it was worthwhile to pursue
the scientific knowledge of names. After he gave his views, he
asked to learn from Cratylus.108
In the Charmides Socrates
reminded Critias twice that he did not know the answers to the
questions, and this was why he inquired-for his own sake as well
as others'. He suggested to Critias that they not be concerned
about whether Critias or Socrates was being refuted, but rather:
"Give the argument itself your attention, and observe what
will become of it under the test of refutation."109 Thus
he endeavored not to let personalities get in the way.
In the Theaetetus Socrates encouraged the young man to
attempt to define knowledge. He looked upon Theaetetus as being
pregnant and himself as a midwife. Socrates described midwives
as being older and past child-bearing but not barren; they know
better than anyone who is pregnant, can arouse labor pains or
calm them, can perform an abortion if desirable, and are skillful
matchmakers. How did Socrates' art compare to this? Socrates'
patients sometimes gave birth to real ideas and other times to
mere images. He practiced upon people rather than bodies. The
most important aspect of his art was testing whether the mind
of the young man was bringing forth false images or real and true
children. Socrates considered himself to be sterile in wisdom
and agreed with the criticism of him that he questioned others
but did not answer himself. He said that God required him to be
a midwife but had never allowed him to bring forth. Although he
himself was not wise or inventive, those who associated with him,
even the ones that seemed ignorant, as God was gracious to them,
made wonderful progress. He said,
And it is clear that they do this,
not because they have ever learned anything from me,
but because they have found in themselves
many beautiful things and have brought them forth.
But the delivery is due to God and me.110
Evidence of this is that many had left Socrates, fallen in with evil companions, and ended up raising their offspring so badly that they lost them. After having explained his art, Socrates offered his assistance to Theaetetus.
Now I have said all this to you at such length, good sir,
because I suspect that you, as you yourself believe,
are in pain because you are pregnant with something within you.
Apply then to me, remembering that I am the son of a midwife
and have myself a midwife's gifts,
and do your best to answer the questions I ask as I ask them.
And if, when I have examined any of the things you say,
it should prove that I think it is a mere image and not real,
and therefore quietly take it from you and throw it away,
do not be angry as women are
when they are deprived of their first offspring.
For many before this have got into such a state of mind
towards me that they are actually ready to bite me,
if I take some foolish notion away from them;
and they do not believe that I do this in kindness,
since they are far from knowing that no god is unkind to mortals,
and that I do not do this from unkindness either,
and that it is quite out of the question
for me to allow an imposture or to destroy the true.
And so, Theaetetus, begin again
and try to tell us what knowledge is.
And never say that you are unable to do so;
for if God wills it and gives you courage, you will be able.111
After Socrates gave a long account of some of the theories
of Protagoras, Theaetetus questioned his ability to understand
whether Socrates was preaching these things because he believed
them or whether he was testing Theaetetus. Socrates had to remind
him that he knew nothing of these things, but that he was explaining
these philosophical theories in order to help Theaetetus bring
his own opinions to light. When this was accomplished, then they
could test them to see if they were false or real.112 As Socrates
questioned Theaetetus the idea was brought forth that perception
is knowledge. Theodorus jumped in and asked Socrates if this was
wrong. Again Socrates denied being able to make such a judgment,
and he said that he was only able to extract an argument from
the other person.113 Socrates would gladly question Theodorus,
but he declined to answer. Not wishing to go against his will,
Socrates resumed the questioning of Theaetetus on Protagoras'
theories.
Then Socrates indicated that Theodorus was really the most capable
of answering the questions at this point, and just as Critias
had been drawn into the argument in the Charmides, Theodorus
was no longer able to avoid giving an account of his ideas. Socrates
got Theodorus to agree to propositions which contradicted the
theory of Protagoras. They then looked at several other ideas
and theories. Throughout, the responses of Theodorus were quite
short, usually indicating assent to Socrates' statements and occasionally
asking for a clarification, making a comment, or indicating his
desire for which direction the argument should take. Almost all
of the substance of the ideas was spoken by Socrates, but he continually
checked at each step that the answerer was in agreement with propositions.
The discussion became so stimulating that Theaetetus requested
that Socrates go into the question that all things are at rest.
However, Socrates surprised Theodorus by not eagerly attacking
this question. He decided rather to return to questioning Theaetetus
on knowledge since they have set this as their task, and the other
subject was too large to discuss in passing.114
The first book of the Republic
shows Socrates asking questions in his inimitable style. Early
on we have an example of Socrates asking open-ended questions
rather than his usual leading questions as in an argument or refutation.
He wished to learn from those older, and he asked Cephalus about
his experience. Here he was not looking for assent or a particular
response, but he wanted to know if the gentleman found old age
hard to bear. Pleased with the value of the response, Socrates
decided to draw him out by asking if his happiness was due to
his wealth. Then he asked him what he felt had been the greatest
benefit he had gotten from his wealth-again a personal question
not calling for only one universally right answer. Cephalus felt
that wealth was best for a person who lives in justice and piety.
At this point Socrates shifted the discussion from Cephalus' personal
experience to a search for a definition of what justice is. The
classical definition of Simonides that justice is "paying
back what is due" was refuted by Socrates by means of a couple
of exceptional cases. Cephalus easily agreed, apparently having
no taste for argument. Polemarchus did not agree and took over
the argument as Cephalus left.115 By asking Polemarchus short
questions and gaining his assent Socrates was able to get him
to concur in the refutation of Simonides' proposition.
At this point the sophist Thrasymachus had gotten very upset
and blasted Socrates for his folly and demanded that he answer
instead of ask questions and declare what his definition of justice
is. When Socrates admitted that he could not, Thrasymachus accused
him of getting out of it by using his typical irony. Now Thrasymachus
had asked for an answer which did not mention duty or advantage
or profit or gain or interest, and Socrates complained that this
was an unfair request to prohibit what might be the true answers.
Socrates asked how could he answer when he knew nothing; but since
Thrasymachus professed to know, he should tell the others what
he knew. Therefore Thrasymachus gave his definition of justice,
and Socrates questioned him on it. After Socrates had refuted
Thrasymachus' conception by means of the example of artists and
rulers who do what is in the interest of those whom they serve,
Thrasymachus took another tack by making a long speech. He then
wanted to leave, but Socrates and the others urged him to stay
so that these ideas he had just expressed could be tested. Socrates
indicated that Thrasymachus must not care whether their lives
were better or worse from not understanding his points; they requested
that he stay and share his knowledge with them.116 In this way
Socrates was able to keep the discussion going, and eventually
through his cross-examination technique he refuted all of the
points that Thrasymachus was able to offer. Again he used the
analogy of the arts, and he also showed that complete injustice
is chaotic and destructive by showing what would happen if justice
and cooperation were completely absent. At the conclusion of the
argument Socrates still felt that he knew nothing about what justice
actually is, but at least Thrasymachus had become calm and was
no longer angry.117
Xenophon also showed us Socrates asking questions. In his Symposium Socrates humorously
demonstrated his value as a procurer by asking if the eyes, voice,
and words could not create either friendliness or animosity. Also
does not the procurer make people attractive, not only to one
but to many? Each of Socrates' questions was answered quite simply
by "Certainly."118 Here is another example of Socrates
merely gaining assent by his questions. A little later in the
beauty contest, Socrates and Critobulus exchange questions and
answers as they compared their features. The questions of Critobulus
were simply asking for information, while those of Socrates were
asking for agreement on the point he was making about the different
features being beautiful because they are functional. Socrates
won the argument but lost the contest.119
In Plato's Alcibiades I Socrates
declared that he did not have the gift of making long speeches;
but if Alcibiades was willing to answer his questions, he would
show him his need for education. Socrates then began the step-by-step
questioning which was designed to demonstrate to Alcibiades that
his ambitions and beliefs were not supported by knowledge.120
Socrates got Alcibiades to see that he probably did not know the
difference between justice and injustice. Alcibiades once prefaced
his reply with the words: "By what you say." Socrates
therefore labored to show him that he, Alcibiades, was the one
actually making the statements because he was answering and Socrates
was only asking. Alcibiades agreed that he would more likely be
persuaded by answering and saying "the case is so,"
than he would be if Socrates were making the statements.121 This
is a simple but important key to the Socratic method. Socrates
did not preach to the listener or attempt to impose his will on
one. By asking questions, however leading they were, he left it
open to the other person to exercise one's own will freely by
choosing to agree or not. Thus it became difficult for the person
to deny the conclusions since he has agreed to each step of the
process. Of course Socrates had to have the ability to adapt to
whatever response the person made.
In the Greater Hippias Socrates cross-examined the famous
sophist on the idea of beauty. This is the subject upon which
Hippias had been discoursing to many of the young men. Since he
claimed to know what beauty is, Socrates was most eager to find
out also by questioning him. Hippias gave examples of beautiful
things, but Socrates was looking for the essence or definition
of beauty itself. Each answer that Hippias gave, Socrates was
able to show to be insufficient or unnecessary to cases of beauty.
Finally Socrates suggested they consider a more universal concept
such as "the appropriate." This was shown to give only
the appearance of beauty. Under the examination Hippias felt confused
but declared that if he could meditate alone on it he knew he
could find it with perfect accuracy. However, Socrates wanted
him to discover it in his presence, so he kept asking him questions.
After the refutations had exhausted Hippias' ideas, Socrates began
to offer suggestions; the questions became even more leading and
the answers shorter. However, even Socrates' own ideas were not
able to stand alone as definitions of beauty under his cross-examination.
No matter how close each concept came to the beautiful, Socrates
found some difference; and since it was somehow different, it
could not be the same. Or again he brought up cases to show that
X is not always in every way beautiful.122 The continually destructive
character of these refutations had perhaps led some to question
the authenticity of this dialog. The method of argument was very
Socratic even though the intent seemed more sophistical than the
ultimate positivity or quest for what is truly beneficial to the
person which usually characterized Socrates' searching.
Plato in the Protagoras
showed us Socrates meeting with the greatest of the sophists.
He asked Protagoras the open-ended question of whether virtue
could be taught, and allowed him to respond in the form of a fable.123
After the speech Socrates requested that he be allowed to ask
some questions concerning the points of Protagoras. He had often
noticed that some public speakers were like books in that they
were not able to answer questions about what they said. However,
Protagoras could do both; so he proceeded to question him.124
As Socrates began to pin down the great master, Protagoras went
off into a lengthy answer to explain his point and was cheered
by the listeners. Socrates, however, ironically claimed to have
a bad memory, and requested that Protagoras keep his answers short.
When Protagoras refused, Socrates indicated his reluctance to
alter his method at this point and was going to leave. Before
going, however, Socrates made it clear that he was not good at
long speeches, and since Protagoras claimed to be able to do both,
he ought to adapt to Socrates' style. Finally they agreed, and
Socrates offered to answer or ask the questions. When Protagoras
questioned him on a point from a poem, Socrates demonstrated his
ability to answer as well as ask the questions. Socrates was not
fooled by the apparent contradiction and was able to elucidate
the difference. He also went on to explain his interpretation
of the poem by Pittacus and its relation to the work of Simonides.125
We find Socrates again requesting short answers from another eminent
sophist in the Gorgias.
Gorgias was famous as a rhetorician, and it was on the subject
of rhetoric that Socrates cross-examined him. Knowing his tendency
to make speeches, Socrates asked him if he was willing to keep
his answers short. As they proceeded, Socrates said he was pleased
with the brevity of Gorgias' answers. He also indicated that he
was very careful not to take for granted what the answers of the
other person would be; but he always waited for the response and
occasionally repeated a simple question, not to gain a contradiction,
but so that the argument could move consecutively. He did not
wish to get into a habit of anticipating the other's thoughts,
but he preferred that the person develop one's own views in one's
own way, whatever they may be.126 This openness in Socrates was
also important and was sometimes overlooked, perhaps because the
written texts do not change like live situations.
When Socrates observed that there were contradictions in what
Gorgias was saying about rhetoric, he checked with the man to
see if he, like Socrates, really was willing and happy to be refuted
if he happened to be in error, because he did not want to arouse
any personal hostility or jealousy. After Gorgias agreed, Socrates
showed the inconsistency that rhetoric can be used rightly or
wrongly and yet was also a science of right and wrong. Gorgias
did not react to this, but Polus became quite upset. Therefore
Socrates continued the discussion with him.127 Finally Socrates
ran up against the challenge of Callicles and praised him for
his knowledge, good-will, and outspokenness, since these would
enable them to have an intelligent, good, and effective discussion.
At the same time Socrates expressed his ironic modesty as he indicated
that any error he made was due to ignorance. When Callicles said
that Socrates was being ironic, he did not agree and referred
to Callicles' description of him as taking philosophy too far.128
For Socrates his position of modesty was an honest one, though
this view was not shared by others.
Also in the Gorgias
Socrates showed his ability to answer questions and give substantive
ideas. When Polus chose to ask rather than answer, he asked Socrates
the same question he had been examining Gorgias on: what is rhetoric?
Socrates categorized it as an experience of flattery rather than
art, and went on to show its relationship to other flatteries
and analogous arts. Socrates explained that it is a mere flattery
rather than an art because it does not contain the knowledge of
the good as justice does. Socrates apologized for making a lengthy
explanation, but it was rather clear who was in control of the
discussion because of greater knowledge and insight. Although
Polus was the one asking the questions, he did not have the Socratic
skill.129
Socrates was usually much more careful about the statements he
made than were the people with whom he talked. He focused on the
truth, as when Polus asked him what kind of an art rhetoric is,
he replied, "To say the truth, Polus, it is not an art at
all, in my opinion."130 An unwatchful person might have just
answered what type before checking to see whether it is in fact
an art. In the Euthyphro
we find another small indication of this carefulness. In clarifying
what Euthyphro's definition of holiness is, Euthyphro agreed,
but he added the phrase, "If you like to call it so."
Socrates replied, "I do not like to call it so, if it is
not true."131 Socrates admitted that the questioner must
follow the answerer, but he did not have to agree that what he
said is true.
Sometimes Socrates distinguished the precise aspects of a certain
case in order to clarify an ambiguity. When Alcibiades held that
some noble things are bad such as when men rescue their friends
in battle but are killed or wounded. He showed through questioning
that the noble courage is good, but the resulting carnage is bad.
The event is complex rather than simple and has good in it because
of the courage and bad in it because of the result; but that does
not make the noble itself bad.132
In the Euthydemus Socrates'
method of questioning was contrasted to the sophistical tricks
of two neophytes in argument. Euthydemus and Dionysodorus played
with the young Cleinias by refuting him whether he took either
side of a question. Concerned about his young friend, Socrates
explained how they did this by equivocating on two different meanings
of the same word. He counseled that these tricks are a sporting
game but they do not lead to wisdom.133 After some more of the
verbal juggling, Socrates entreated the two men to display some
serious reasoning. To further encourage them he gave them another
example. (He had already demonstrated an argument exhorting people
toward wisdom.) In this argument Socrates continued to pursue
the theme that knowledge should be useful.134 In this dialog Plato
seemed to be endeavoring to show that the method of Socrates sought
positive values and was not to be confused with the sophistry
of his imitators. When Euthydemus and his brother tried to play
their game on Socrates, he found himself attempting to clarify
the meaning of their questions or the corresponding meaning of
his answers in order to avoid getting into ambiguities. However,
they complained when he did not fall into their traps. He finally
agreed to submit to their game, but the value of the results was
rather ridiculous.135
Although Socrates did not claim to be skilled at making speeches,
he would occasionally give an extended discourse. In the Phaedrus he considered himself
an amateur speaker, but he finally yielded to this friend's request
for a rhetorical display. Socrates found the theme that the non-lover
is better than the lover for the beloved to be a repugnant idea,
and he was so embarrassed that he covered his head in shame.136
Later he redeemed himself by discoursing on the madness of love
and its benefits. In the Protagoras
after he claimed that he was not good at long speeches, Socrates
gave a lengthy interpretation of the poems by Simonides and Pittacus.137
Socrates' humility about making speeches may have merely indicated
a preference for the discussion method. There are many examples
of different kinds of speeches that he gave. In the Theaetetus
we see Socrates mocking up a speech for the late Protagoras in
which he pretended to talk to Socrates and the others.138 In the
Menexenus we even find
him giving a patriotic oration which he said he learned from Aspasia,
the mistress of Pericles.139 However, since the speech surveyed
the history of Athens down to 386 BC, thirteen years after Socrates'
death, the authenticity of the dialog is obviously suspect. In
the next section we will examine other speeches of Socrates which
utilize particular styles such as myth, allegory, etc.
Socrates was also eager to hear the speeches of others as in
the Phaedrus where
he allowed the young man to manipulate him just so that he could
hear the speech of Lysias. In the Timaeus, which is supposed
to be on the day after the discussion in the Republic,
Socrates welcomed a discourse from Timaeus, Critias, and Hermocrates.140
In this dialog Timaeus gave a very long lecture on cosmology,
and in the Critias Socrates granted his friend by that
name indulgence to trace the history of Atlantis.141 The text
of his account broke off in the middle, and there is no record
of a speech by Hermocrates.
Poetry and Metaphor
Discussion
This chapter has been published in the book CONFUCIUS AND SOCRATES Teaching Wisdom. For ordering information, please click here.