Now that we have examined the teachings of Socrates, it may
be worthwhile to glance back over his life to see how well he
practiced what he preached. According to Xenophon and Plato there
was a high correlation in terms of Socrates living up to his own
ideas.
In Plato's Laches the
general of that name declared that he loves and hates discussions
depending on whether the speaker who is discoursing on virtue
and wisdom has deeds to match or not. He examined how well the
words and actions harmonize with each other. When they were in
harmony, he rejoiced; but when the person was of an opposite character,
he was pained and hated the discussion. Laches then said, "Now
of Socrates' word I have no experience, but before, as it seems,
I have tested his deeds; and there I found him worthy of freely
speaking all the beautiful words."1 In this case Laches had
personally seen Socrates' bravery on the battlefield, but he is
as yet unfamiliar with his skill in conversation. As far as this
general was concerned, his demonstrated courageous character gave
him license to speak whatever he wished.
Xenophon recorded in his Symposium
that when Socrates recommended that every husband ought to teach
his wife whatever he would like her to know, Antisthenes challenged
him by asking, "If that is so, Socrates, how is it that you
don't practice what you preach by yourself educating Xanthippe,
but live with a wife who is the hardest to get along with of all
the women there are-or, I think, that ever were or will be?"
Socrates explained:
Because I observe that men who wish to become
expert horsemen do not get the most docile horses
but rather those that are high-spirited,
believing that if they can manage this kind,
they will easily handle any other.
And I, wishing to deal with and associate with people,
have acquired the same, well assured that if I can endure her,
I will easily be able to relate with all the rest of mankind.2
The rest of the company confirmed the validity of this remark.
Socrates did in fact have more trouble with Xanthippe than with
anyone else, and his close relationship with her did give him
the opportunity to learn how to get along with even a shrew like
her.
After relating Socrates' ideas on self-control, Xenophon made
the following observation:
His own self-control was shown yet more clearly
by his deeds than by his words.
For he kept in control not only the pleasures of the body,
but those too that money brings,
in the belief that he who takes money from any casual giver
puts himself under a master
and endures the basest form of slavery.3
Socrates was well-known for his detachment from material things.
In defending Socrates against his accusers who felt he had been
corrupting the youth, Xenophon gave more details. Not only did
he control his own desires and appetites stricter than anyone,
but he could endure any cold or heat and was resolute in labor;
his needs were so well trained in moderation that he was content
with very little.
This being his character, how could he have led others
into impiety, crime, gluttony, lust, or laziness?
In fact he helped many get over these by urging them
toward goodness and giving them confidence
that self-discipline would make them gentlemen.4
He never professed to teach these things, but by manifesting
them he gave his disciples hope that they could attain them also.
He never neglected the body, and he criticized such neglect in
others, such as over-eating followed by over-exertion. He recommended
as much physical exercise as is pleasing to the soul, for this
habit brings good health and does not hamper care of the soul.
He disliked foppery and pretentiousness in the fashion of clothes
or in behavior, and he did not encourage the love of money among
his companions. Although he assisted them, he would not take money
even though they desired to give it. This policy he kept in order
to assure his own liberty, not selling himself into bondage to
anyone. He was surprised that anyone could take money for the
spreading of virtue; for him the greatest reward was the gain
of a good friend. Certainly anyone who became a gentleman could
not fail to feel deep gratitude for such a great benefit. Socrates
made no promises to anyone, but he was confident that his companions
who adopted these principles of conduct would be life-long good
friends to him and to each other.5
Probably Socrates was condemned by many because he was critical
of many of the established practices of the time. He argued that
it was foolish to choose public officials by lottery when every
other profession depends on knowledge and skill, and mistakes
in the minor crafts were less disastrous than the mistakes in
statecraft. Some people felt that he led the young to despise
the constitution of the city and made them violent. Xenophon reasoned
in his defense that the cultivation of wisdom and the use of persuasion
by words are designed to replace force by safe and friendly means
of change. Actually it is power without wisdom that leads to violence;
for violence requires physical supporters, while wisdom only needs
confidence in its ability to persuade.6 As far as we know, Socrates
never attempted to organize his own political force, but rather
he only acted as an individual counselor in private life. What
his students did in politics we shall examine in the next chapter.
Xenophon concluded his defense of Socrates against the charges
of corrupting the youth and rejecting the gods by declaring that
he was more deserving of honor on these counts rather than death.
He never caused anything bad to happen to the state nor was any
person in private life harmed by him. "No man was more conspicuous
for his devotion to the service of the gods," and he was
so far from corrupting the youth that "if any among his companions
had evil desires, he openly tried to reform them and exhorted
them to desire the fairest and noblest virtue, by which people
prosper in public life and in their homes."7 Perhaps there
is some cosmic irony of history here, as with Jesus, that the
man who stood out as doing the most for people, received the most
persecution.
Socrates often spoke about justice; so it is fitting that we
look at the actions in his life which exemplified justice. Xenophon
summarized many of them.
Again, concerning justice he did not hide his knowledge,
but demonstrated it by his actions.
All his private conduct was lawful and helpful;
to public authority he was so scrupulously obedient
in all that the laws required,
both in civil life and in military service,
that he was a model of good discipline to all.
When chairman in the Assembly he would not permit
the people to record an illegal vote,
but upholding the laws, resisted a popular impulse
that might have overcome any but himself.
And when the Thirty laid a command on him that was illegal,
he refused to obey.
Thus he disregarded their repeated injunction
not to talk with young men;
and when they commanded him and certain other citizens
to arrest a man on a capital charge, he alone refused,
because the order given him was illegal.
Also when he was tried on the charge brought by Meletus,
even though it is the custom for defendants to ask for favor
with the jury and to indulge in flattery and illegal appeals,
and many by such means have been known
to gain a verdict of acquittal,
he completely rejected the familiar trickery of the courts;
and though he might easily have gotten a favorable verdict
by even a moderate indulgence in such stratagems,
he chose to die through his loyalty to the laws
rather than to live through violating them.8
As we have seen earlier, these courageous deeds in accordance
with his beliefs were also described in various works by Plato.
Socrates often made reference to his own actions in discussing
a topic, such as the time when Hippias asked him about justice,
complaining that Socrates never stated his own ideas. Socrates
replied, "I declare them by deeds, anyhow, if not by my words.
Don't you think that deeds are better evidence than words?"
Hippias agreed, pointing out that many talk about justice and
do what is unjust, but no one who acts justly can be unjust. So
Socrates asked him, "Then have you ever seen me dealing in
perjury or calumny, or stirring up strife between friends or in
the city, or doing anything else unjust?"9 Hippias had not.
Here again Socrates showed his concern that his actions match
his theories.
Xenophon told how Hermogenes tried to get Socrates to prepare
a speech for his defense in court against Meletus; he responded,
"Don't you think I have been preparing for it all my life?
... in being constantly occupied in the consideration of right
and wrong, and in doing what was right and avoiding what was wrong."10
When Hermogenes persisted, Socrates closed the matter by saying
that his deity prevented him from preparing a speech ahead.11
Socrates had no need to worry at this particular point; since
his entire life was devoted to what was best, this must be a good
thing that was happening.
In Plato's Gorgias
Socrates declared that doing what is good and just is more important
than merely trying to extend one's life-span a little longer.
But, O blessed one, don't you see that
the noble and the good are something
different from saving and being saved?
For may not the one who is truly courageous not love life
so much in terms of a certain amount of time,
but surrendering all this to God and believing
what the women say that no one escapes destiny,
should not he proceed to consider
the best way to live out the time of his life?12
Besides, for the person who is aware that one's soul is immortal,
it is only a question of where and how well one lives.
Later in the Gorgias
Socrates demonstrated his courage in criticizing the state in
an effort to improve it even though he was arousing enmity and
endangering his own person. Rather he did what he did for the
sake of justice, as the physician whose medicine may be painful
for a while, though it leads to health. Even though his own life
might be in danger, Socrates could not lower himself to flatter
the state unjustly.13 Socrates did in fact end up making the ultimate
sacrifice.
In the Crito we have seen how
Socrates demonstrated logically and in actuality that it is better
to follow the just laws of the state than to run away and set
a bad example for other law-breakers.14
After discussing the immortality of the soul in the Phaedo
Socrates personified the certainty of his knowledge by his calmness
as the execution proceeded. When Crito asked him how should they
bury him, Socrates reminded his friend that he was leaving soon
and not to confuse his dead body with who Socrates really is.15
Socrates was friendly and cooperative with the jailer who instructed
him to drink the poison. Even though his friends requested it,
Socrates refused to delay his death beyond the designated time,
for he believed he would gain nothing by it. He remained calm
and confident to the very end. The narration concluded that of
all the people of that time, Socrates was "wisest, most just,
and best."16 His equipoise in such circumstance could not
help but give confidence to the witnesses present.
Let us conclude this chapter with Xenophon's final summary from
his recollections of Socrates.
All who knew what manner of man Socrates was
and who pursue virtue continue to this day to miss him
beyond all others, as the chief of helpers in the quest of virtue.
For myself, I have described him as he was:
so pious that he did nothing without counsel from the gods;
so just that he did no injury, however small, to any man,
but conferred the greatest benefits on all who dealt with him;
so self-controlled that he never chose the more pleasant
rather than the better course;
so wise that he was unerring in his judgment
of the better and the worse, and needed no counselor,
but relied on himself for his knowledge of them;
no less masterly in putting others to the test,
and convincing them of error
and exhorting them to follow virtue and goodness.
He seemed to be all that an excellent and happy man must be.17
1. Plato Laches 188-189.
2. Xenophon Symposium II, 9-10.
3. X. Mem. I, v, 6.
4. X. Mem. I, i, 1-2.
5. X. Mem. I, i, 3-8.
6. X. Mem. I, i, 9-11.
7. X. Mem. I, ii, 63-64.
8. X. Mem. IV, iv, 1-4.
9. X. Mem. IV, iv, 10-11.
10. X. Mem. IV, viii, 4; X. Defense of Socrates
3.
11. X. Mem. IV, viii, 5; X. Defense of Socrates
4-5.
12. P. Gorgias 512.
13. Ibid. 521-522.
14. P. Crito 50-54.
15. P. Phaedo 115.
16. Ibid. 116-118.
17. X. Mem. IV, viii, 11.
CONFUCIUS
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AND SOCRATES:
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