c. 760 BC Amos prophesied
in Israel and Judah.
c. 750 BC Hosea prophesied
in Israel.
c. 742-697 BC Isaiah and
Micah prophesied in Israel and Judah.
701 BC Egypt and Judah rebelled against Assyria. Isaiah
and Micah
c. 700 BC Parshva taught nonviolence in India. Mahavira
c. 630 BC Zephaniah
prophesied in Judah.
c. 627-580 BC Jeremiah
prophesied in Judah.
c. 620 BC Nahum prophesied
in Judah.
612 BC Babylonians captured Nineveh. Micah
c. 600 BC Habakkuk
prophesied in Judah.
597 BC Jehoiachin surrendered Jerusalem to Babylon. and
597-588 BC Zedekiah ruled in Jerusalem for Babylon. and
593-563 BC Ezekiel
prophesied in Babylon.
586 BC Babylon's Nebuchadrezzar captured Jerusalem. and
551-479 BC Confucius taught
humanistic ethics.
c. 540 BC Second Isaiah
prophesied in Babylon.
c. 531-510 BC Pythagoras
taught at Crotona.
c. 528 BC Buddha founded
a religion in India.
c. 520 BC Lao-zi wrote
Dao De Jing in Chu.
c. 519 BC Mahavira
founded Jain religion in India.
483 BC Buddha died;
first Buddhist Council was held.
c. 450 BC Empedocles
wrote On Nature and Purifications.
432-393 BC Mo-zi and his
disciples intervened to stop wars.
424-405 BC Aristophanes'
comedies protested war.
403 BC Socrates refused
to cooperate with 30 tyrants.
399 BC Socrates was
tried and executed in Athens.
c. 380-323 BC Diogenes
founded Cynic school of philosophy.
371-289 BC Mencius taught
Confucian philosophy in China.
261-236 BC Ashoka
ruled India with Buddhist principles.
c. 260 BC Stoic philosopher Zeno
died.
30 BC Hillel came to
Judea and began teaching.
c. 27-30 Jesus the Christ
taught in Israel.
c. 30 Jesus was crucified
by Romans at Jerusalem.
30-61 James was a
leader of the church in Jerusalem.
c. 40-97 Pythagorean Apollonius
of Tyana taught.
c. 45 Philo Judaeus
died in Alexandria.
49-65 Stoic Seneca
tutored and advised Nero
c. 70-c. 120 Dio Chrysostom
presented Discourses.
75-c. 120 Plutarch
taught philosophy.
c. 80-c. 135 Epictetus
taught Stoic philosophy.
92-101 Clement was
third bishop of Rome.
c. 155 Smyrna bishop Polycarp was killed in a stadium. Martyr
165 Justin Martyr
was executed in Rome.
c. 197-204 Tertullian
wrote in defense of Christians.
203-54 Origen taught
Christian philosophy.
239-74 Mani founded the
Manichaean religion.
295 Maximilian refused to be a Roman soldier. Lactantius
c. 303 Arnobius wrote against war. Lactantius
303-27 Lactantius
wrote on Christianity.
313 Constantine was converted to Christianity.Lactantius
313-14 Donatists were condemned by Catholics. Lactantius
c. 362-97 Martin refused to fight and lived like a monk.Lactantius
397-430 Augustine developed
the "just war" doctrine.
c. 760-801 Rabi'a was a Sufi mystic.
865-925 Al-Razi taught Platonic
philosophy, medicine.
882-942 Saadia ben Joseph taught
Judaic philosophy.
893-974 Yahya Ibn 'Adi taught Jacobite philosophy. and
922 Sufi al-Hallaj was executed.
936-1030 Miskawayh wrote history,
taught philosophy.
989 Church council at Charroux declared Peace of God. Crusades
994-1064 Ibn Hazm wrote wise books.
1022-70 Ibn Gabirol taught Neo-Platonic
philosophy.
1027 Church proclaimed the Truce of God. Crusades
c. 1131 Sana'i wrote the Enclosed
Garden of Truth.
1137-55 Arnold of Brescia
challenged rich clergy.
c. 1140 Gratian published his Decretum. Magna
Carta
1141-79 Hildegard
of Bingen wrote mystical works.
1167 Cathars were burned
at Vézelay.
1188 'Attar wrote The Conference
of the Birds.
1190 Gerohus of Regensburg proposed abolishing war. Crusades
1203-76 Albigensian crusade persecuted Cathars.
1208-26 Francis of
Assisi founded the Franciscans.
1215 Stephen Langton
devised the Magna Carta.
1231-73 Rumi taught Sufism.
1257-74 Bonaventure
was minister general of Franciscans.
1312 Dante wrote
On World-Government.
1324 Marsilius wrote
The Defender of Peace.
1339-74 Petrarch
advocated humanistic government.
1360-1400 Diplomat Chaucer
wrote Canterbury Tales.
1369-1408 Poet John Gower
opposed war.
1372-82 Reformer Wyclif
translated the Bible.
1382-c. 1500 Lollards opposed war and were persecuted. Wyclif
1415 Jan Hus was burned
as a heretic.
c. 1420 Chelcicky
renounced all violence.
c. 1460-1518 Kabir wrote mystical
poetry.
1489-1536 Erasmus
wrote against war and for peace.
1496-1539 Nanak founded the Sikh
religion.
1514-66 Las Casas
tried to reform Spanish colonies.
1525 Grebel began the Anabaptist
movement.
1529-31 Anabaptists
refused to fight in civil war.
1535-1685 Hutterites
practiced communal living.
1536-46 Vitoria wrote
on international law.
1539 Menno wrote
Foundation of Christian Doctrine.
1567-1579 Dutch revolted against Spanish imperialism. Ending
1572 Dutch Mennonites
refused to go to war. 318
1575 Czechowic wrote Christian Dialogues. Hutterites
1571-1617 Suarez taught
theology and law.
1623 Eméric Crucé
wrote The New Cyneas.
1623-25 Grotius wrote
The Law of War and Peace.
1651 George Fox was in jail
because of civil war.
1660 Fox and Quakers signed a Declaration. Penn
1669 Penn wrote No Cross,
No Crown in the Tower.
1672 Pufendorf wrote
on the law of nations.
1682 Penn founded Pennsylvania
for Quakers.
1682-1756 Pennsylvania had
a pacifist government.
1693 Penn wrote a peace plan
for a European union.
1714 Saint-Pierre wrote
a peace plan for Europe.
1740-1750 Wolff wrote
on the natural law of nations.
1759 Vattel published
his Law of Nations.
1761 Rousseau wrote
A Lasting Peace.
1762 Rousseau wrote
The Social Contract and Emile.
1765 Americans refused to obey the Stamp Act. Ending
1773 Boston Tea Party resisted British taxation. Ending
1789 Bentham wrote
"A Plan for Universal Peace."
1792 Mary Wollstonecraft wrote on women's
rights.
1795 Kant published
Perpetual Peace.
1815 Congress of Vienna made the Concert of Europe.
1815 Dodge founded the New York Peace
Society.
1815 Worcester founded Massachusetts Peace
Society.
1816-42 Channing preached
against war.
1821 Central America abolished
slavery.
1821 Emma Willard founded Troy Female Seminary. Women's
Rights
1823 U.S. proclaimed the Monroe Doctrine. Central
America
1828 Women workers went on strike at Dover. Women's
Rights
1828-29 Frances Wright lectured on sexual equality. Women's
Rights
1828-41 Ladd led the American
Peace Society.
1831 Garrison began publishing
The Liberator.
1833 Prudence Crandall taught Negro girls. Women's
Rights
1836 Upham published a Manual of Peace. American
Peace Society
1838 Garrison declared
nonresistance.
1838 Emerson lectured
to the American Peace Society.
1838 Angelina Grimké
spoke for women's rights.
1843 World Peace Congress
was held in London.
1846 Ballou published Christian Non-Resistance. Abolitionists
1846 Thoreau went to
jail for not paying his tax.
1847 Burritt founded League of Universal Brotherhood. Abolitionists
1848 Seneca Falls Convention for women's rights met. Mrs.
Stanton
1848-1920 Women worked to gain the vote. Suffragettes
1849 Thoreau wrote "Resistance
to Civil Government."
1850-92 Bahá'u'lláh
founded the Bahá'í faith.
1851 Harriet Taylor wrote "Enfranchisement of Women."
Mill
1854 Burritt wrote on passive resistance. Abolitionists
1858 Lucy Stone refused
to pay her taxes.
1867 Deak gained rights for Hungarians. Ending
1868 St. Petersburg conference outlawed cruel weapons. Peace
Conferences
1869 J. S. Mill published
The Subjection of Women.
1870 Julia Ward Howe proclaimed Mother's Day. Women
1872 Susan B. Anthony
was arrested for voting.
1889 Bertha von Suttner
wrote Lay Down Your Arms.
1889 Jane Addams founded
Hull House in Chicago.
1893 Tolstoy wrote The Kingdom
of God Is Within You.
1899, 1907 The Hague
conventions limited war.
1903 Emmeline Pankhurst
formed the WSPU.
1905, 1917 Russian revolution had nonviolent phases. Rebelling
1907 Gandhi used mass noncooperation
in South Africa.
1909 Gandhi wrote Hind Swaraj.
1909 NAACP was founded.
1911-13 'Abdu'l-Bahá
spoke in Europe and America.
1912 African National Congress was founded. ANC
1913 H. G. Wells wrote The World Set Free. World
Government
1914 US Congress passed Mother's Day. Women
1915 Addams founded the Woman's
Peace Party.
1915 Maude Royden advocated
nonviolent direct action.
1915-35 Jane Addams led
WILPF.
1916 Russell led the
No Conscription Fellowship.
1917 Woman's Party picketed the White House. Alice
Paul
1918.1.8 U.S. President Wilson
proposed 14 Points.
1918 Russell was imprisoned
for his writing.
1918 Women gained suffrage in England. British
1919.4 Gandhi called and canceled a general strike. Nonviolent
Campaign
1919 Versailles Peace Treaty
established a League of Nations.
1920 Women gained suffrage in the United States. Catt
1921 Gandhi led mass noncooperation in India. Nonviolent
Campaign
1921 Permanent Court of International Justice began. League
of Nations
1921.12 Yugoslavia withdrew from Albania. League
of Nations
1922.3 British sentenced Gandhi to six years. Nonviolent
Campaign
1922 Austria became independent. League
of Nations
1925.6 Geneva Protocol banned poisonous weapons. League
of Nations
1925.10 Locarno Treaty set German borders. League
of Nations
1925.10 League of Nations
made peace between Greece and Bulgaria.
1927 France withdrew its garrison from the Saar. League
of Nations
1928 Einstein advised refusing
military service.
1928.8.7 Kellogg-Briand Pact outlawed war. League
of Nations
1929 Simone Weil advocated
complete disarmament.
1930.3 Gandhi led the salt campaign
in India.
1931.9.18 Japan invaded Manchuria. League
of Nations
1931 Maude Royden proposed
a Peace Army.
1932.1 30,000 peasants were massacred in El Salvador. Central
America
1932.2 59 nations attended a disarmament conference. League
of Nations
1932.9 Gandhi's fast gained rights for untouchables. Nonviolent
Campaign
1933 Day and Maurin founded the Catholic
Worker.
1933 Japan and Germany withdrew from the League
of Nations.
1934 Somoza had Sandino murdered in Nicaragua. Central
America
1935-1936 Ethiopia's Selassie asked the League
of Nations for help.
1935 The Saar voted to rejoin Germany. League
of Nations
1935.10.3 Italy's army invaded Ethiopia. League
of Nations
1936.3.7 Hitler sent German troops into the Rhineland. League
of Nations
1936.7 Franco attacked the government of Spain. League
of Nations
1937 Japan attacked China, which appealed to League
of Nations.
1938.3 Germany occupied Austria and Sudetanland. League
of Nations
1939.4.7 Italy invaded Albania. League
of Nations
1939.5 Spain withdrew from the League
of Nations.
1939.8.2 Einstein wrote to
Roosevelt about atomic energy.
1939.9.1 Germany invaded Poland. League
of Nations
1939.11.30 U.S.S.R. invaded Finland. League
of Nations
1940 Muste wrote Nonviolence
in an Aggressive World.
1940-1945 Danes resisted German occupation. Ending
1941.8 Roosevelt and
Churchill signed the Atlantic Charter.
1942-44 Gandhi was under arrest for protesting war. Nonviolent
1942-1945 Norwegian teachers refused to teach Nazi ideas. Ending
1943 Wendell Wilkie published One World.
1944 ANC formed a Youth League.
1944 Myrdal published An American Dilemma. Desegregation
1945 Chief Luthuli joined the
ANC.
1945.8 World War II
ended with atomic bombings.
1945.10.24 The United Nations
was formed.
1945 Emery Reves wrote The Anatomy of Peace. World
Government
1946.5 Soviet troops withdrew from Iran. UN
Peacekeeping
1946.12.11 UN affirmed Nuremberg
Principles.
1947.8.15 Indian and Pakistan gained independence.
1948.1.30 Gandhi was assassinated by a Hindu. Nonviolent
1948.5.14 Israel became a nation. UN
Peacekeeping
1948 CIA intervened in Italian elections. Chomsky
1948.12.10 UN adopted Universal
Declaration of Human Rights.
1949.4.4 NATO alliance was founded. Domination
1949.4 Pacifica radio was founded. Nonviolence
1949.7.27 UN gained a cease-fire in Kashmir. UN
Peacekeeping
1949.8.12 Geneva Conventions
were signed.
1949.12.27 Indonesia became independent. UN
Peacekeeping
1950.6.25 UN reacted to North Korea's invasion. UN
Peacekeeping
1950 Grenville Clark
published A Plan for Peace.
1952 Luthuli was elected ANC
president.
1953 Peace Pilgrim began walking around the U.S. and
1953.6 300,000 East Germans went on strike. Rebelling
1953.7.27 U.S. agreed to an armistice in Korea. UN
Peacekeeping
1953.8.19 CIA helped overthrow Mossadegh in Iran. Chomsky
1954.12.23 Russell
spoke over BBC on "Man's Peril."
1954.5.7 French were defeated
at Dienbienphu.
1954.5.17 US Supreme Court overturned racial segregation. Desegregation
1954.6 CIA helped overthrow Arbenz in Guatemala. Central
America
1955 Warsaw Pact alliance was founded. Domination
1955.6 Freedom Charter was proclaimed in South Africa. ANC
1955 Day and others refused
a civil defense drill.
1955-56 King led the
Montgomery bus boycott.
1956.11.2 UN gained a cease-fire at the Suez Canal. UN
Peacekeeping
1956.11 Hungarian uprising was crushed by Soviet tanks. Rebelling
1957 Russell organized
Pugwash Conferences. Nuclear
1957 SANE was founded to abolish nuclear
weapons.
1957.9 Arkansas schools were integrated. Desegregation
1958 King published
Stride Toward Freedom.
1958 Linus Pauling wrote No More War! Nuclear
1958.4 Schweitzer spoke by
radio on atomic weapons.
1958.6 UN observers went to Lebanon. UN
Peacekeeping
1958 World Peace Through World
Law was published.
1959.4 Sobukwe founded Pan-African Congress. ANC
1959.9.19 Khrushchev suggested complete disarmament. McCloy-Zorin
1960.3.21 Police killed 69 Africans at Sharpeville. ANC
1960 Sit-ins led to founding of SNCC.
1960-61 Mandela defended in treason trial. ANC
1960-64 UN intervened in the Congo. UN
Peacekeeping
1961 King led Freedom
Rides.
1961.9.25 Kennedy proposed complete disarmament. McCloy-Zorin
1961 20,000 sat down at a U.S. Polaris base. Russell
1961 Women Strike for Peace
began protesting.
1962 Chavez organized
National Farm Workers.
1962.9 Meredith went to University of Mississippi. SNCC
1962.10 Thant, Russell
mediated Cuban missile crisis. UN
Peacekeeping
1962.11 Dutch withdrew from West New Guinea. UN
Peacekeeping
1963.2.9 CIA helped overthrow Kassem in Iraq.
1963.4 King wrote a
letter from Birmingham jail.
1963.6.12 Medgar Evers was murdered in Jackson. SNCC
1963.8.5 Partial nuclear
test ban treaty was signed.
1963.8.28 250,000 heard King's
"I Have a Dream" speech.
1963-1964 UN observers went to Yemen. UN
Peacekeeping
1963-90 Mandela was imprisoned
in South Africa.
1964.3 UN Peacekeepers
went to Cyprus.
1964.7 U.S. Civil Rights Act became law. King
1964.8.7 U.S. Congress passed Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Vietnam
1964.9 Savio led Free Speech Movement at Berkeley. Path
1965 SDS and others protested the Vietnam
War.
1965.4 U.S. intervened in the Dominican Republic. UN
Peacekeeping
1965.8 U.S. Voting Rights Act became law. King
1965.10 U.S. backed a coup in Indonesia. UN
Peacekeeping
1966 Russell convened
a Vietnam War Crimes Tribunal.
1966 United Farm Workers
began grape boycott.
1966, 1971 UN observed cease-fire in Kashmir. UN
Peacekeeping
1967 King called for
an end to the Vietnam War.
1967 Many thousands protested the Vietnam
War.
1967.6 Israel occupied West Bank and other territories. UN
Peacekeeping
1967 Chomsky and Zinn wrote
against the Vietnam War.
1968 Latin American bishops decided to help the poor. Central
America
1968 Dubcek led Czech liberalization. Rebelling
1968.4.4 King was killed
while working for the poor.
1968.5.17 Catonsville 9 led by Berrigans burned draft files. Vietnam War
1969.11.15 A million people marched against the Vietnam
War.
1969-70 U.S. bombing killed 300,000 Cambodians. Vietnam
War
1970.5.4 Four protesting students were killed at Kent State. Vietnam War
1971.4 Vietnam veterans
protested in Washington.
1971.6 Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers. Vietnam
War
1972 Duarte was elected but exiled from El Salvador. Central
America
1972-74 Greenpeace disrupted French nuclear
tests.
1973.7 U.S. Congress stopped funding the Vietnam
War.
1973.9.11 CIA helped overthrow Allende in Chile. Chomsky
1973.10.6 Egypt and Syria attacked Israel. UN
Peacekeeping
1975.2 People stopped a nuclear
power plant at Wyhl.
1975.4.30 Last Americans evacuated Vietnam.
1975-77 200,000 were killed in East Timor. Chomsky
1976.6.1 Syria invaded Lebanon. UN
Peacekeeping
1976-77 Soweto uprising was repressed. Black
Consciousness
1977.5.1 1,414 were arrested at Seabrook. Nuclear
Power
1977.9.12 Biko was killed in
custody.
1978.6 United Nations held first session on disarmament. Nuclear
Weapons
1978, 1982 Israel invaded Lebanon. UN
Peacekeeping
1979.3.26 Carter made peace between Israel and Egypt. UN
Peacekeeping
1979.7.19 Sandinistas
overthrew Somoza in Nicaragua.
1979.12.27 Soviet army invaded Afghanistan. UN
Peacekeeping
1979-2005 Dr. Caldicott of PSR spoke about nuclear war. Freeze
1980 Nuclear weapons
freeze proposal gained support.
1980.3.24 Archbishop Romero was assassinated in El
Salvador.
1980 Solidarity Union grew to ten million in Poland. Rebelling
1980.9.9 Berrigans led Plowshares 8 action. Nuclear
Weapons
1980-88 Iraq attacked Iran and fought a war. UN
Peacekeeping
1981.9 1,900 were arrested at Diablo Canyon. Nuclear
Power
1981.11 1,300 were arrested in Women's Pentagon Action. Nuclear
Weapons
1982.1 Sanctuary movement began helping Salvadorans.
1982.2 Schell published The Fate of the Earth. Nuclear
Weapons Freeze
1982 Millions of women demonstrated for peace. Feminism
1982.6.14 1,691 were arrested at the United Nations. Nuclear
1982.6.21 1,400 were arrested at Livermore Lab. Nuclear
1982.9 Israel massacred Palestinians at Sabra and Shatila. Chomsky
1982.1213 2,000 Greenham Common women were arrested. Nuclear
Weapons
1983.3 777 were arrested at Vandenberg Air Force Base. Nuclear
Weapons
1983.3 Green Party won 27 seats in the Bundestag. Nuclear
Weapons
1983.4 Witness for Peace began visiting Nicaragua. Proxy
Wars
1983.6.20 1,066 were arrested at Livermore Lab. Nuclear
Weapons
1983.10.25 U.S. Marines invaded Grenada. Chomsky
1984 Desmond Tutu won Nobel Peace Prize. South
Africa
1984 Winooski 44 were acquitted by a jury. Resisting
1984 Pledge of Resistance
began.
1985.3.11 Gorbachev proposed
ending the nuclear arms race.
1985-89 Gorbachev implemented
perestroika and glasnost.
1986 Great Peace March crossed the United States. Nuclear
Weapons
1986.6.27 World Court convicted U.S. of attacking Nicaragua. Chomsky
1986.10 Iran-Contra
scandal was exposed.
1986-94 Thousands protested nuclear
testing in Nevada.
1987 Greenpeace began a Nuclear Free Seas campaign. Nuclear
Testing
1987.9.1 Brian Willson was run over by a munitions train. Resisting
1987 U.S. boycotted UN Disarmament Conference. Chomsky
1988 Medea Benjamin co-founded
Global Exchange.
1988-89 Soviet army withdrew from Afghanistan. UN
Peacekeeping
1988-91 UN verified peace in Angola. UN
Peacekeeping
1989.11.1 Independent Namibia held elections. UN
Peacekeeping
1989 Poland, Hungary and Czechoslovakia became free. Eastern
Europe
1989 1,452 in Pledge of Resistance
were arrested.
1989.12.20 U.S. invaded Panama
to capture Noriega. Chomsky
1990.2 East and West Germany were reunited. Eastern
Europe
1990 UN demobilized the Contras. UN
Peacekeeping
1990.8.2 Iraq invaded Kuwait.
UN Peacekeeping
1990-91 U.S.S.R. dissolved into independent republics. Eastern
Europe
1990-92 El Salvador and the FMLN made peace. UN
Peacekeeping
1990 UN authorized U.S. attack on Iraq
and Kuwait. UN Peacekeeping
1990-2003 UN sanctions
caused a million deaths in Iraq.
1991 U.S. killed 175,000 Iraqis.
1991 Warsaw Pact was dissolved. Eastern
Europe
1991.11.12 Goodman reported massacre in East Timor. Feminism
1991-93 UN intervened in Cambodia. UN
Peacekeeping
1991-96 UN intervened in Yugoslavia. UN
Peacekeeping
1992 Earth Summit met at
Rio de Janeiro.
1992-1995 UN monitored cease-fire in Somalia. UN
Peacekeeping
1993 Gorbachev founded Green
Cross International.
1993 Mandela and De Klerk won
Nobel Peace Prize.
1993-96 UN intervened in Haiti. UN
Peacekeeping
1994-99 Mandela was president
of South Africa.
1996.3 VitW delegations began visiting Iraq. Kelly
1996 UN verified peace in Guatemala. UN
Peacekeeping
1996 Amy Goodman began Pacifica's Democracy Now. Feminism
1996-98 TRC helped heal South Africa. Truth
1997.3 UN began Oil for Food program in Iraq.
1997.11.16 601 were arrested at the School of the Americas. Resisting
1997.12 Mine Ban Treaty was signed in Ottawa. Nonviolence
1998.12 US and UK bombed Iraq.
1999 NATO bombed to drive Serbs out of Kosovo. UN
Peacekeeping
1999.12 Protests disturbed WTO meeting in Seattle. Benjamin
2000.6 Earth Charter mission
was launched.
2001.9.11 Terrorists destroyed
the World Trade Center.
2001.10.7 U.S. attacked Taliban in Afghanistan. US
Hegemony
2001.10.26 US Patriot Act became law. Bush
2002.5.20 East Timor became an independent nation. UN
Peacekeeping
2002.10 US Congress authorized Iraq invasion. Bush
2002.10 CIA killed 6 al-Qaida in Yemen. US
Hegemony
2002.11 Code Pink: Women
for Peace was founded.
2002 Earth Charter was recognized
by the UN.
2003.2.15 Millions marched
to protest imminent Iraq War.
2003.3.19 US, UK, and others invaded Iraq.
2003.3 Thousands were arrested for protesting
Iraq War.
2003.5 US Congress approved new nuclear weapons. US
Hegemony
2003 Chomsky wrote Hegemony
or Survival.
2004.2.28 US forces abducted Aristide from Haiti. UN
Peacekeeping
2004.4 Abu Ghraib prison abuse was exposed. Iraq
2005.1 UN mediated a peace agreement in the Sudan. UN
Peacekeeping
2005 Thousands of US military went AWOL. Iraq
2005.5 World Tribunal on Iraq
charged Bush and Blair.
2005.6 Democrats held hearings on Bush's lies. Iraq